Study 2 was designed to make the situational constraints of the no-choice condition salient in two ways: (a) by asking participants to write an essay on a topic regardless of their genuine attitude toward the topic or (b) by also making it clear to participants that the essay by the target person was almost a copy of the arguments provided by the experimenter. This lack of difference might have been due to weak salience of the situational constraints. Study I employed the classic attitude attribution paradigm of Jones and Harris and found that both Korean and American participants displayed the correspondence bias in the no-choice condition. Two studies examined the correspondence bias in attitude attributions of Koreans and Americans. The cultural differences can be explained by self-consistency, sensitivity to social consequences, parent-child interaction, and living arrangement. It was concluded that asymmetry is greater in collectivistic than in individualistic culture. Further, the Understand and Visibility items showed greater asymmetry for the Korean group than for the American group. On all three items-Know, Understand, and Visibility-asymmetry was found for both horizontal and vertical relationships. In the present study, the authors compared American (114 men, 192 women) and Korean (99 men and 98 women) students to examine whether the asymmetry is greater in collectivistic than in individualistic culture in two types of relationships: horizontal (with best friends) and vertical (with parents). Previous studies have reported that our interpersonal knowledge shows an asymmetry that is, we tend to believe that we know and understand other people's thoughts and feelings better than other people know and understand our own thoughts and feelings. A relatively strong negative correlation (r = -.53) between the average self-minus-observer profile and social desirability ratings suggests that people in most studied cultures view themselves less favorably than they are perceived by others. This cross-culturally replicable disparity between internal and external perspectives was not consistent with predictions based on the actor-observer hypothesis because the size of the disparity was unrelated to the visibility of personality traits. As a rule, people think that they have more positive emotions and excitement seeking but much less assertiveness than it seems from the vantage point of an external observer. External observers generally hold a higher opinion of an individual's conscientiousness than he or she does about him- or herself. People see themselves as more neurotic and open to experience compared to how they are seen by other people. Consensus studies from 4 cultures-in Belgium, the Czech Republic, Estonia, and Germany-as well as secondary analyses of self- and observer-reported Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) data from 29 cultures suggest that there is a cross-culturally replicable pattern of difference between internal and external perspectives for the Big Five personality traits.
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